Everything about Lebanon totally explained
Lebanon (
Arabic:
Lubnān), officially the
Republic of Lebanon or
Lebanese Republic, is a religiously diverse, mountainous country in
Western Asia, on the eastern shore of the
Mediterranean Sea. It is bordered by
Syria to the north and east, and
Israel to the south. Due to its
sectarian diversity, Lebanon evolved a unique political system, known as
confessionalism, based on a community-based
power-sharing mechanism. It was created when the ruling French mandatory powers expanded the borders of the former Maronite Christian autonomous Ottoman Mount Lebanon district.
The
flag of Lebanon features a
cedar in green against a white backdrop,
bounded by two horizontal red stripes along the top and bottom. This is a reference to the famous cedars of Lebanon, renowned throughout the region in antiquity. The red refers to the blood spilled in order to gain the independence, the white refers to the purity and peace.
Before the
Lebanese Civil War (1975-1990), the country enjoyed a period of relative calm and prosperity, driven by the tourism, agriculture, and banking sectors of the economy. It is considered the banking capital of the
Levant and was widely known as the "
Switzerland of the East" due to its financial power and diversity. Lebanon also attracted large numbers of tourists to the point that the capital
Beirut became widely referred to as the "
Paris of Western Asia"
Immediately following the end of the war, there were extensive efforts to revive the economy and rebuild national infrastructure. By early 2006, a considerable degree of stability had been achieved throughout much of the country, Beirut's reconstruction was almost complete, and an increasing number of foreign tourists were pouring into Lebanon's resorts. "White" could be regarded as reference to the snow-capped
Mount Lebanon. Occurrences of the name have been found in three of the twelve tablets of the
Epic of Gilgamesh (2900 BC), the texts of the library of
Ebla (2400 BC), and 71 times in the
Old Testament. The name is even recorded in
Ancient Egyptian as
Rmnn, where
r stood for Phoenician
l.
History
Ancient history
The earliest known settlements in Lebanon date back to earlier than 5000 BC. Archaeologists have discovered in
Byblos, which is considered to be the oldest continuously-inhabited city in the world, remnants of prehistoric huts with crushed limestone floors, primitive weapons, and burial jars which are evidence of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic fishing communities who lived on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea over 7,000 years ago.
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Lebanon was the homeland of the
Phoenicians, a seafaring people that spread across the Mediterranean before the rise of
Cyrus the Great. After two centuries of Persian rule, Macedonian ruler
Alexander the Great attacked and burned
Tyre, the most prominent Phoenician city. Throughout the subsequent centuries leading up to recent times, the country became part of numerous succeeding empires, among them
Persian,
Assyrian,
Macedonian,
Roman,
Byzantine,
Arab,
Crusader, and
Ottoman.
French mandate and independence
Lebanon was part of the
Ottoman Empire for over 400 years, in a region known as
Greater Syria, until 1918 when the area became a part of the
French Mandate of Syria following
World War I. On
September 1,
1920, France formed the State of Greater Lebanon as one of several ethnic enclaves within
Syria. Lebanon was a largely
Christian (mainly
Maronite) enclave but also included areas containing many
Muslims and
Druzes. On
September 1,
1926, France formed the Lebanese Republic. The Republic was afterward a separate entity from Syria but still administered under the French Mandate of Syria.
Lebanon gained independence in 1943, while France was occupied by
Germany. General
Henri Dentz, the
Vichy High Commissioner for Syria and Lebanon, played a major role in the independence of the nation. The Vichy authorities in 1941 allowed Germany to move aircraft and supplies through
Syria to
Iraq where they were used against British forces. The
United Kingdom, fearing that Nazi Germany would gain full control of Lebanon and
Syria by pressure on the weak Vichy government, sent its army into Syria and Lebanon.
After the fighting ended in Lebanon, General
Charles de Gaulle visited the area. Under various political pressures from both inside and outside Lebanon, de Gaulle decided to recognize the independence of Lebanon. On
November 26,
1941 General Georges Catroux announced that Lebanon would become independent under the authority of the
Free French government. Elections were held in 1943 and on
November 8,
1943 the new Lebanese government unilaterally abolished the mandate. The French reacted by throwing the new government into prison. In the face of international pressure, the French released the government officials on
November 22,
1943 and accepted the independence of Lebanon.
The
allies kept the region under control until the end of
World War II. The last French troops withdrew in 1946. Lebanon's unwritten
National Pact of 1943 required that its
president be Christian and its
prime minister be Muslim.
Lebanon's history since independence has been marked by alternating periods of political stability and turmoil (including a
civil conflict in 1958) interspersed with prosperity built on
Beirut's position as a regional center for finance and trade.
1948 Arab-Israeli war
Five years after gaining independence, Lebanon joined the Arab League to invade
Israel shortly after its declaration of independence. during the
1948 Arab-Israeli War. It took over logistical support of the
Arab Liberation Army after it found itself cut off from its bases in Syria while going on an attack on the newly-proclaimed
Jewish State. After the defeat of the Arab Liberation Army in
Operation Hiram, Lebanon accepted an
armistice with Israel on
March 23,
1949 and the conquered territory was returned. During the war, about 100,000
Palestinian refugees fled to Lebanon.
Civil war and beyond
In 1975, civil war broke out in Lebanon. The
Lebanese Civil War lasted fifteen years, devastating the country's economy, and resulting in the massive loss of human life and property. It is estimated that 150,000 people were killed and another 200,000 maimed. The war ended in 1990 with the signing of the
Taif Agreement and parts of Lebanon were left in ruins.
During the civil war, the
Palestine Liberation Organization used Lebanon to launch attacks against Israel. Lebanon was twice invaded and occupied by the
Israel Defense Forces (IDF) in 1978 and 1982, the PLO expelled in the second invasion. Israel remained in control of Southern Lebanon until 2000, when there was a general decision, led by Israeli Prime Minister
Ehud Barak, to withdraw due to continuous guerrilla attacks executed by
Hezbollah militants and a belief that Hezbollah activity would diminish and dissolve without the Israeli presence. The UN determined that the withdrawal of Israeli troops beyond the
blue line was in accordance with
UN Security Council Resolution 425, although a border region called the
Shebaa Farms is still disputed. Hezbollah declared that it wouldn't stop its operations against Israel until this area was liberated.
Recent history
On
February 14,
2005, former Prime Minister
Rafik Hariri was assassinated in a
car bomb explosion near the
Saint George Bay in Beirut. Leaders of the
March 14 Alliance accused
Syria of the attack due to its extensive military and intelligence presence in Lebanon, and the public rift between Hariri and
Damascus over the Syrian-backed constitutional amendment extending pro-Syrian President
Lahoud's term in office. Others, namely the
March 8 Alliance and Syrian officials, claimed that the assassination may have been executed by the Israeli
Mossad in an attempt to destabilize the country.
This incident triggered a series of demonstrations, known as
Cedar Revolution, that demanded the withdrawal of Syrian troops from Lebanon and the establishment of an international commission to investigate the assassination. The
United Nations Security Council unanimously adopted Resolution 1595 on
April 7,
2005, which called for an investigation into the assassination of Rafik Hariri. The findings of the investigation were officially published on
October 20,
2005 in the
Mehlis report. Eventually, and under pressure from the international community, Syria began withdrawing its 15,000-strong army troops from Lebanon. By
April 26,
2005, all uniformed Syrian soldiers had already crossed the border back to Syria. The Hariri assassination marked the beginning of a series of assassination attempts that led to the loss of many prominent Lebanese figures.
On
July 12,
2006,
Hezbollah captured two Israeli soldiers leading to a conflict, known in Lebanon as
July War, that lasted until a
United Nations-brokered
ceasefire went into effect on
14 August 2006.
In October 2007, the
Émile Lahoud finished his second term as President. The opposition conditioned its vote for a successor on a power-sharing deal, thus leaving the country without a president for over 6 months.
On
May 09,
2008,
Hezbollah and
Amal militants, in an armed attack triggered by a government decision on
Hezbollah's communications network, temporarily took over Western
Beirut.
(External Link) The situation was described by the government as an attempted "coup".
On
May 21,
2008, all major Lebanese parties signed an accord to elect
Michel Suleiman as President, to form a national unity government with 11 out of 30 seats for the opposition, thus enabling it to veto decisions, and to adopt a new electoral law, based on the 1960 law with amendments for the 3 Beirut constituencies. The deal was brokered by an
Arab League delegation, headed by the Emir and Foreign Minister of
Qatar and the Secretary General of the Arab League, after 5 days of intense negotiations in
Doha. Michel Suleiman was officially elected President on Sunday
May 25,
2008 in the presence of the Foreign Ministers of
Syria and
Iran as well as
France and
Saudi-Arabia.
Geography and climate
Lebanon is located in
Western Asia. It is bordered by the
Mediterranean Sea to the west along a coastline, by
Syria to the east and north, and by
Israel to the south. The Lebanon-Syria border stretches for and the Lebanon-Israel border for . The border with the Israeli-occupied
Golan Heights in Syria is disputed by Lebanon in a small area called
Shebaa Farms, but the
border has been demarcated by the
United Nations.
Most of Lebanon's area is mountainous terrain, except for the narrow coastline and the
Beqaa Valley, which plays an integral role in Lebanon's agriculture.
Lebanon has a moderate
Mediterranean climate. In coastal areas, winters are generally cool and rainy whilst summers are hot and humid. In more elevated areas, temperatures usually drop below freezing during the winter with frequent, sometimes heavy, snow; summers, on the other hand, are warm and dry. Although most of Lebanon receives a relatively large amount of rainfall annually (compared to its arid surroundings), certain areas in north-eastern Lebanon receive little rainfall because the high peaks of the western mountain front block much of the rain clouds that originate over the Mediterranean Sea.
In ancient times, Lebanon housed large forests of the
Cedars of Lebanon, which now serve as the country's national emblem. However, centuries of trading cedar trees, used by ancient
mariners for boats, and the absence of any efforts to replant them have depleted Lebanon's once-flourishing cedar forests. The districts themselves are also divided into several municipalities, each enclosing a group of cities or villages. The governorates and their respective districts are listed below:
Demographics and religion
No official census has been taken since 1932, reflecting the political sensitivity in Lebanon over confessional (for example religious) balance. The
CIA World Fact Book gives the following distribution:
Muslim - 59.7% (Shi'a, Sunni, Druze, Isma'ilite, Alawite or Nusayri),
Christian - 39% (Maronite Catholic, Greek Orthodox, Melkite Catholic, Armenian Orthodox, Syrian Catholic, Armenian Catholic, Syrian Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Chaldean, Assyrian, Copt, Protestant), other 1.3%.
There are 17 religious sects recognized. Some followers of the
Druze religion don't consider themselves to be
Muslim; however, the state legally recognizes
Druze followers as
Muslim.
The number of those inhabiting Lebanon proper was estimated at 3,925,502 in July 2007.
Argentina,
Australia,
Canada,
Colombia,
Ecuador,
France,
Spain,
Germany,
Great Britain,
Mexico,
Venezuela,
USA,
West Africa,
Haiti, and the
Dominican Republic also have large Lebanese communities.
Economy
The urban population in Lebanon is noted for its commercial enterprise. Over the course of time, emigration has yielded Lebanese "commercial networks" throughout the world. Lebanon has a high proportion of skilled labour comparable to most European nations and the highest among Arabic speaking countries.
Although Lebanon is ideally suited for
agricultural activities in terms of water availability and
soil fertility, as it possesses the highest proportion of cultivable land in the Arabic speaking world, it doesn't have a large agricultural sector. Attracting a mere 12% of the total
workforce, agriculture is the least popular economic sector in Lebanon. It contributes approximately 11.7% of the country's
GDP, also placing it in the lowest rank compared to other economic sectors. Major produce include apples, peaches, oranges, and lemons.
Lebanon's lack of
raw materials for
industry and its complete dependency on Arab countries for
oil have made it difficult for the Lebanese to engage in significant
industrial activity. As such, industry in Lebanon is mainly limited to small businesses concerned with reassembling and packaging imported parts. In 2004, industry ranked second in workforce, with 26% of the Lebanese working population,
Until the
2006 Lebanon War, Lebanon's economy witnessed excellent growth, with bank assets reaching over 75 billion dollars. By the end of the first half of 2006, the influx of tourists to Lebanon had already registered a 49.3% increase over 2005 figures.
Beirut's airport, Rafiq Hariri International Airport, re-opened in September 2006 and the efforts to revive the Lebanese economy have since been proceeding at a slow pace. Major contributors to the reconstruction of Lebanon include
Saudi Arabia (with $US 1.5 billion pledged), the
European Union (with about $1 billion) and a few other Gulf countries with contributions of up to $800 million.
Foreign Relations
Lebanon concluded negotiations on an association agreement with the
European Union in late 2001, and both sides initialed the accord in January 2002. Lebanon also has bilateral trade agreements with several Arab states and is working toward accession to the
World Trade Organization. Aside from Syria, Lebanon enjoys good relations with virtually all of the other Arab countries (despite historic tensions with Libya, the Palestinians, and Iraq), and hosted an
Arab League Summit in March 2002 for the first time in more than 35 years. Lebanon also is a member of the
Organization of Islamic Conference and maintains a close relationship with
Iran, largely centered on Shi'a Muslim links. Lebanon is a member of the
Francophone countries and hosted the Francophone Summit in October 2002.
Education
Schools
All Lebanese schools are required to follow a prescribed curriculum designed by the Ministry of Education. Private schools, approximately 1,400 in all, may also add more courses to their curriculum with approval from the Ministry of Education. The main subjects taught are mathematics, sciences, history, civics, geography, Arabic, and either French or English or both. The subjects gradually increase in difficulty and in number. Students in Grade 11, for example, usually study up to eighteen different subjects.
The government introduces a mild form of selectivity into the curriculum by giving 11
th graders choice between two "concentrations": sciences, humanities, and 12
th graders choose between four concentrations: life sciences, general sciences, sociology and economics, and humanities and literature. The choices in concentration don't include major changes in the number of subjects taken (if at all). However, subjects that fall out of the concentration are given less weight in grading and are less rigorous, while subjects that fall within the concentration are more challenging and contribute significantly to the final grade.
Students go through three academic phases:
Elementary: Six years.
Intermediate: Three years; students earn Intermediate Certification (Lebanese Brevet) at completion.
Secondary: three years, students who pass official exams earn a Baccalaureate Certificate (Baccalauréat Libanais) in the concentration they chose in 12th grade. Students studying at French-system schools may also graduate with a French Baccalaureate that's considered equivalent to the Lebanese Baccalaureate.
These three phases are provided free to all students and the first eight years are, by law, compulsory. Nevertheless, this requirement currently falls short of being fully enforced.
Higher education
Following secondary school, Lebanese students may choose to study at a university, a college, or a vocational training institute. The number of years to complete each program varies. While the Lebanese educational system offer a very high quality and international class of education, the local employment market lacks of enough opportunities, thus encouraging many of the young educated to travel abroad.
Lebanon has 41 nationally-accredited universities, several of which are internationally recognized. The American University of Beirut (AUB) and the Université Saint-Joseph (USJ) were the first Anglophone and the first Francophone universities to open in Lebanon, respectively. The forty-one universities, both public and private, largely operate in French, or English as these are the most widely used foreign languages in Lebanon.
At the English universities, students who have graduated from an American-style high school program enter at the freshman level to earn their baccalaureate equivalence from the Lebanese Ministry of Higher Education. This qualifies them to continue studying at the higher levels. Such students are required to have already taken the SAT I and the SAT II upon applying to college, in lieu of the official exams. On the other hand, students who have graduated from a school that follows the Lebanese educational system are directly admitted to the year. These students are still required to take the SAT I, but not the SAT II. The University academic degrees for the first stage are the Bachelor or the Licence, for the second stage are the Master or the DEA and the third stage is the doctorate.
The United Nations assigned Lebanon an Education Index of 0.84 in 2005.
Language
Lebanon's official language is Arabic per article 11 of the Constitution. The law allows French to be used for some official purposes, and French is therefore considered as an administrative and national language. The majority of Lebanese people speak Arabic and either French or English fluently. Moreover, Lebanese people of Armenian descent also speak Armenian fluently.
The colloquial variant of Arabic used in Lebanon is one part of a grouping of dialects called Levantine Arabic, differing in a way from the literary Modern Standard Arabic, owing its historical blend to Arabic, Turkish, and the Syriac dialect of Aramaic. In recent years, it has become increasingly common for Lebanese people, especially the better educated, to converse in a combination of Arabic, English and French whereby the same sentence would include words or expressions from the different languages.
Regional influences and occupations throughout the centuries could possibly explain why Lebanese people speak so many languages, even incorporating them into their own. In addition, due to the importance of the Lebanese diaspora and business interests of Lebanese worldwide, it has always been important to master languages other than Arabic.
In the Christian communities, until the Lebanese Civil War, it was seen as a mark of status to not speak Arabic. The reason for this could possibly be that Christians generally were educated in many of the French educational institutions and so a general Francophonic class emerged in their communities. English has been making significant headway in the past two decades. However, as the Muslim population increased in previously Christian areas, Arabic is nowadays almost universally spoken among Lebanese.
Culture
Overview
The area including modern Lebanon has been home to various civilizations and cultures for thousands of years. Originally home to the Phoenicians, and then subsequently conquered and occupied by the Assyrians, the Persians, the Greeks, the Romans, the Arabs, the Ottoman Turks and most recently the French, Lebanese culture has over the millennia evolved by borrowing from all of these groups. Lebanon's diverse population, composed of different ethnic and religious groups, has further contributed to the country's lively festivals, highly successful musical styles and literature as well as their rich cuisine, and numerous violent clashes amongst different religious and ethnic groups. When compared to the rest of the Western Asia, Lebanese society as a whole is well educated, and as of 2003 87.4% of the population was literate. Lebanese society is very modern and similar to certain cultures of Mediterranean Europe. It is often considered to serve as Europe's gateway to Western Asia as well as the Asian gateway to the Western World.
Cuisine
The Lebanese Cuisine is considered to be a Mediterranean basically Levantine Arabic delicacy consisting of a variety of fresh vegetarian recipes, salads and stews all seasoned with a flavorsome combination of herbs and spices. One of the most world known Lebanese specialties is called the Maza, also written "Mezze", which is a selection of appetisers: olives, cheeses, Labanee, or small portions also known as muqabbilat (Arabic for starters). Also, a Lebanese parsley salad known as Tabouleh, is very popular and enjoyed by many cultures. It is made with parsley, green onions, tomatoes, fresh lemon juice, olive oil, and salt.
As with most Mediterranean cuisines, Lebanese cuisine is considered to be a very balanced, healthy diet.
The cuisine of Lebanon is the epitome of the Mediterranean diet. It includes an abundance of starches, fruits, vegetables, fresh fish and seafood; animal fats are consumed sparingly. Poultry is eaten more often than red meat, and when red meat is eaten it's usually lamb. It also includes copious amounts of garlic and olive oil-nary a meal goes by in Lebanon that doesn't include these two ingredients. Most often foods are either grilled, baked or sauted in olive oil; butter or cream is rarely used other than in a few desserts. Vegetables are often eaten raw or pickled as well as cooked. While the cuisine of Lebanon doesn't boast an entire repertoire of sauces, it focuses on herbs, spices and the freshness of ingredients; the assortment of dishes and combinations are almost limitless. The meals are full of robust, earthy flavors and, like most Mediterranean countries, much of what the Lebanese eat is dictated by the seasons.
Food and music overlap greatly with those of Syria, the Palestinian Territories, Egypt, Greece, and Turkey (all were Ottoman provinces for 400 years.)
Creative arts
Lebanese music is known around the world for its soothing rhythms and oriental beats. Traditional and folk music are extremely popular as are western rhythms.
One of the most well-known Lebanese singers is Fairuz; her songs are broadcast every morning on most radio stations and many TV channels, both in Lebanon and the Arab world in general. Other prominent artists include Julia Boutros, composer and oud player Marcel Khalife, Majida El Roumi, Sabah, and the important nun and singer Sister Marie Keyrouz, founder of The Ensemble of the Peace.
Some Lebanese artists, such as Najwa Karam and Assi Hellani, remain loyal to a traditional type of music known as 'jabali' ("from the mountains"), while other artists incorporate Western style into their songs. Lebanese performers are perhaps the most popular in the Arab world alongside Egyptian artists, and the star scene includes prominent figures like Najwa Karam, Nancy Ajram, Elissa (singer), Ragheb Alame, Myriam Fares, Wael Kfoury, Nawal al Zoghbi, Haifa Wehbe, Carole Samaha, Julia Boutros, Marwan Khouri, Waleed Tawfeek, Amal Hijazi and Majida El Roumi. In addition, the lead guitarist from All Time Low, Jack Barakat, was born in Lebanon. Nevertheless, Lebanon is playing a leader rule in media and digital arts in the MENA region, in addition to the growth of online campaign such as Going Niche www.goingniche.com.
Sports
Because of Lebanon's unique geography, both summer and winter sports thrive in the country. In fact, in autumn and spring it's sometimes possible to engage in both during the same, skiing in the morning and swimming in the Mediterranean during the afternoon. At the competitive level, basketball, football, and hip ball are among Lebanon's most popular sports. In recent years, Lebanon has hosted the Asian Cup and the Pan-Arab Games; the country will host the Winter Asian Games in 2009. To meet the needs of these international competitions, Lebanon maintains state-of-the-art athletic facilities, which in turn encourage local sporting activities. Lebanon sends athletes to both the winter and summer games of the Olympics and Special Olympics. The Lebanese national soccer team has progressed past the first round of qualifying for the FIFA World Cup 2010 by eliminating India, 6-3 on aggregate. Rugby league is also popular in Lebanon. The national rugby league team nearly qualified for the 2008 World Cup, but were narrowly beaten by Samoa in their final game.
In association football, Lebanon has never made it to the FIFA World Cup or, in fact, ever won a trophy. They compete in the West Asian Football Federation Championship every time.
Lebanon boasts six ski resorts, with slopes suitable for skiers and snowboarders of all ages and levels of experience. Off-slope, there are many opportunities for cross-country skiing, snowshoeing, and snowmobiling. In the summer, skilifts can be used to access some of Lebanon's best hiking trails, with panoramic views stretching as far as Cyprus to the west and Syria to the east on clear days. Canoeing, cycling, rafting, climbing, swimming, sailing and spelunking are among the other common leisure sports in Lebanon. Adventure and extreme sports are also possible throughout the country. The Beirut Marathon is held every fall, drawing top runners from Lebanon and abroad. Shorter races are also held for youth and less serious competitors. Race day is promoted as a fun, family event, and it has become a tradition for many to participate in costumes or outlandish clothing.
Arts and literature
Lebanon's contribution to the Arab Rennaissance during the middle of the 19th century is immense. This flowering allowed for the modernisation of the Arabic language moving it away from its Koranic classical dictums, and allowing for the creation and adaptation of previously unknown terms/ words as Al-Watan (the nation), Al-Watania (Nationalism).
The first theatre production in the Arab world was performed at the Al-Kahzen household in 1862, a Lebanese
aristocratic family who were also representatives of France.
By the turn of the 20th century, Beirut was vying with Cairo as the major centre for modern Arab thought, with untold number of newspapers, magazines, and literary societies.
In literature, Gibran Khalil Gibran is known to be one of the world's famous writers, particularly known for his book The Prophet, which has been translated into more than twenty different languages.
Several contemporary Lebanese writers have achieved international success; including Elias Khoury, Amin Maalouf and Hanan al-Shaykh.
In art, Moustafa Farroukh and Alfred Bassbouss are very famous. Mustafa Farroukh (1901-1957) was one of Lebanon's most prominent painters of the 20th century. Formally trained in Rome and Paris, he exhibited in venues from Paris to New York to Beirut over his career. His work was applauded for its representation of real life in Lebanon in pictures of the country, its people and its customs. Farroukh became highly regarded as a Lebanese nationalist painter at a time when Lebanon was asserting its political independence. His art captured the spirit and character of the Lebanese people and he became recognized as the outstanding Lebanese painter of his generation. His total paintings were more than 2000 sold to collectors inside and outside of Lebanon. He also wrote five books and taught art at the American University of Beirut.
Festivals
Several international music festivals are held in Lebanon, featuring world-renowned artists and drawing crowds from Lebanon and abroad. Among the most famous are Baalbeck International Festival, Beiteddine Festival, Byblos International Festival, and the Al-Bustan Festival. Beirut (Beirut Nights) in particular has a very vibrant arts scene, with numerous performances, exhibits, fashion shows, and concerts held throughout the year in its galleries, museums, theatres, and public spaces.
Politics
Lebanon is a parliamentary, democratic republic, which implements a special system known as confessionalism. This system, allegedly meant to insure that sectarian conflict is kept at bay, attempts to fairly represent the demographic distribution of religious sects in the governing body. As such, high-ranking offices in are reserved for members of specific religious groups. The President, for example, has to be a Maronite Catholic Christian, the Speaker of the Parliament a Shi’a Muslim, the Prime Minister a Sunni Muslim and the Deputy Prime Minister an Orthodox Christian.
This trend continues in the distribution of the 128 parliamentary seats, which are divided equally between Muslims and Christians. Prior to 1990, the ratio stood at 6:5 in favor of Christians; however, the Taif Accord, which put an end to the 1975-1990 civil war, adjusted the ratio to grant equal representation to followers of the two religions. This procedure, denounced by pro-democracy campaigners, was repeated in 2004 to allow Émile Lahoud to remain in office until 2007.
The President appoints the Prime Minister on the nomination of the parliament (which is, in most cases, binding). Following consultations with the parliament and the President, the Prime Minister forms the Cabinet, which must also adhere to the sectarian distribution set out by confessionalism.
Lebanon's judicial system is based on the Napoleonic Code. Juries are not used in trials. The Lebanese court system consists of three levels: courts of first instance, courts of appeal, and the court of cassation. There also is a system of religious courts having jurisdiction over personal status matters within their own communities, with rules on matters such as marriage, divorce, and inheritance. Lebanese law doesn't provide for Civil marriage (although it recognizes such marriages contracted abroad); efforts by former President Elias Hrawi to legalize civil marriage in the late 1990s floundered on objections mostly from Muslim clerics. Additionally, Lebanon has a system of military courts that also has jurisdiction over civilians for crimes of espionage, treason, and other crimes that are considered to be security-related. These military courts have been criticized by human rights organizations such as Amnesty International for "seriously fall[ing] short of international standards for fair trial" and having "very wide jurisdiction over civilians".
After Rafic Hariri's assassination on 14 February 2005, the country has seen turbulent political times, and it shaped the Cedar Revolution and the rise of the March 14 alliance which is made of: Lebanese Forces, Future Movement and the PSP.
International rankings
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